Grímsvötn

Coordinates: 64°25′12″N 17°19′48″W / 64.42000°N 17.33000°W / 64.42000; -17.33000
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Grímsvötn
Grímsvötn and the Vatnajökull glacier, Iceland, July 1972
Highest point
Elevation1,725 m (5,659 ft)[1]
ListingList of volcanoes in Iceland
Coordinates64°25′12″N 17°19′48″W / 64.42000°N 17.33000°W / 64.42000; -17.33000
Geography
Geology
Mountain typeVolcanic caldera
Last eruptionMay 2011
Map
Geological features near the Grímsvötn central volcano and its fissure swarm (red outlines). The fissure swarm's recent surface lava flows are shaded violet (darker if more recent). Shading also shows:   calderas, other   central volcanoes,   fissure swarms,   subglacial terrain above 1,100 m (3,600 ft), and   seismically active areas. Clicking on the image enables full window and mouse-over with more detail.

Grímsvötn (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈkrimsˌvœhtn̥] ⓘ;[2] vötn = "waters", singular: vatn) is an active volcano with a (partially subglacial) fissure system located in Vatnajökull National Park, Iceland. The volcano itself is completely subglacial and located under the northwestern side of the Vatnajökull ice cap. The subglacial caldera is at 64°25′N 17°20′W / 64.417°N 17.333°W / 64.417; -17.333, at an elevation of 1,725 m (5,659 ft). Beneath the caldera is the magma chamber of the Grímsvötn volcano.

Grímsvötn is a basaltic volcano which has the highest eruption frequency of all the volcanoes in Iceland and has a southwest-northeast-trending fissure system. The massive climate-impacting Laki fissure eruption of 1783–1784 was a part of the same Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system.[3] Grímsvötn was erupting at the same time as Laki during 1783, but continued to erupt until 1785. Because most of the volcanic system lies underneath Vatnajökull, most of its eruptions have been subglacial and the interaction of magma and meltwater from the ice causes phreatomagmatic explosive activity.[4] Within the Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system is a second central volcano called Thordarhyrna (Þórðarhyrna).[5]

Jökulhlaup[edit]

Eruptions in the caldera regularly cause glacial outbursts known as jökulhlaup.[6] Eruptions or geothermal activity, melt enough ice to fill the Grímsvötn caldera with water, and the pressure may be enough to suddenly lift the ice cap, allowing huge quantities of water to escape rapidly. Earthquakes and seismic tremor may occur.[7] Jökulhlaup can occur independent of eruptions or be followed by eruptions.[7] Jökulhlaup independent of eruptions occurred in November, December 2021 and October 2022.[7] Jökulhlaup which were followed by eruptions occurred in 1922, 1934 and 2004.[7] Consequently, the Grímsvötn caldera is monitored very carefully.

When a large eruption occurred in 1996, geologists knew well in advance that a glacial burst was imminent. It did not occur until several weeks after the eruption finished, but monitoring[8] ensured that the Icelandic ring road (Hringvegur) was closed when the burst occurred. A section of road across the Skeiðará sandur was washed away in the ensuing flood, but no one was hurt.

Eruption history between 1990 and today[edit]

Gjálp 1996[edit]

(See also the main article: 1996 eruption of Gjálp

The Gjálp fissure vent eruption in 1996 revealed that an interaction may exist between Bárðarbunga and Grímsvötn. A strong earthquake in Bárðarbunga, about magnitude 5 , is believed to have started the eruption in Gjálp. On the other hand, because of the magma erupted showed strong connections to the Grímsvötn Volcanic System acc. to petrology studies, the 1996 as well as a former eruption there in the 1930s are thought to have taken place within Grímsvötn Volcanic system.[9][10]

1998 and 2004 eruptions[edit]

Satellite images of the November 2004 Grímsvötn Eruption. The lower image assigns a false color (red) to the surface ice.

A week-long eruption occurred at Grímsvötn starting on 28 December 1998, but no glacial burst occurred. In November 2004, a week-long eruption occurred. Volcanic ash from the eruption fell as far away as mainland Europe and caused short-term disruption of airline traffic into Iceland, but again no glacial burst followed the eruption.

2011 eruption[edit]

Main article: 2011 eruption of Grímsvötn

Harmonic tremors were recorded twice around Grímsvötn on 2 and 3 October 2010, possibly indicating an impending eruption.[11] At the same time, sudden inflation was measured by GPS in the volcano, indicating magma movement under the caldera. On 1 November 2010 meltwater from the Vatnajökull glacier was flowing into the lake, suggesting that an eruption of the underlying volcano could be imminent.

Satellite image from 22 May 2011 of the volcanic plume above Iceland
View of Icelandic landscape beneath the ash-cloud during the 2011 eruption
Grímsvötn in August 2011. Ash covering the surrounding snow and ice

On 21 May 2011 at 19:25 UTC, an eruption began, with 12 km (7 mi) high plumes accompanied by multiple earthquakes,[12][13][14][15] Until 25 May, the eruption scale had been larger than that of the 2010 eruption of Eyjafjallajökull.

The ash cloud from the eruption rose to 20 km (12 mi), and was so far 10 times larger than the 2004 eruption, and the strongest in Grímsvötn in the last 100 years.[16]

Satellite image from 23 May 2011 of the ash-cloud to the south of Iceland

Disruption to air travel in Iceland[17] commenced on 22 May, followed by Greenland, Scotland,[18] Norway, Svalbard[19] and a small part of Denmark on subsequent days. On 24 May the disruption spread to Northern Ireland and to airports in northern England.[17] The cancellation of 900 out of 90,000 European flights[20] in the period 23–25 May was much less widespread than the 2010 disruption after the Eyjafjallajökull eruption.

The eruption stopped at 02:40 UTC on 25 May 2011, although there was some explosive activity from the eruptive vents affecting only the area around the crater.[21][22][23]

2020 onward threats of eruption[edit]

In June 2020, the Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) issued a warning that an eruption might take place in the coming weeks or months, following scientists reporting high levels of sulfur dioxide, which is indicative of the presence of shallow magma. IMO warned that a glacial flood as a result of melting ice could trigger an eruption.[24] No eruption occurred.

In September 2021, an increase in water outflow from under the Vatnajökull ice cap was reported. The water contains elevated levels of dissolved hydrogen sulfide, suggesting increased volcanic activity under the ice.[25] Jökulhlaup (glacial lake flooding) can occur before or after an eruption.

On 4 December 2021, a jökulhlaup occurred from Grímsvötn into the Gígjukvísl river, with an average flow of 2,600 m3/s (92,000 cu ft/s). Two days later, the Icelandic Meteorological Office increased the alert level for Grímsvötn from yellow to orange, after a series of earthquakes was detected. On 7 December, the alert level was lowered back to yellow, after seismic activity decreased and no signs of eruptive activity were detected.[26]

On 11 December 2023, a jökulhlaup followed in time,[7] a Mw4.5 earthquake.[27]

Eruption history before 1990[edit]

Tephra studies on soil samples from around the Vatnajökull ice-cap, show that the Grímsvötn volcanic system has high activity for Iceland, and had between 4 to 14 explosive eruptions every 100 years (mean about 7 eruptions every 100 years) between 7600 years ago and 870 AD.[28] For technical reasons only the last 10,200 years of explosive eruptions have been characterised locally,[29] and the record gets more inaccurate with time especially prior to 1598, which is first eruption timed to the day.[1] The Laki eruptions which were both effusive and explosive between June 1783 and February 1784,[30] produced the Skaftáreldahraun lava flows, which cover a large part of south-east Iceland.[3]. Before this the tip of the Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system was active with the production of the 4550 BCE Botnahraun lava flow which extends beyond the furtherest extent to the south of the Laki lava field.[3] The Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system also formed the Núpahraun lava flows around 4000 BP[30] that extend from the Vatnajökull glacier towards the south east coast and are covered in part by the northern Laki Skaftáreldahraun lava flow.[3] There are two recent pre-historic but undated Bergvatnsárhraun lava flows just on the south-eastern edge of the Vatnajökull glacier, related to the line of the Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissures.[3]

Eruptions Grímsvötn volcanic system last 10,000 years (unconfirmed eruptions not shown)
Date Cal BP Standard Date Lake Lögurinn tephra thickness VEI/Comment
- 2011 - VEI 4.[1]
- 2004 - VEI 3.[1]
- 1998 - VEI 3.[1]
- 1996 - VEI 3.[1]
- 1983 - VEI 2.[1]
- 1954 - VEI 1.[1]
12 1938 - VEI 4.[1]
16 1934 - VEI 2.[1]
17 1933 - VEI 1.[1]
28 1922 9 cm (3.5 in) VEI 2[1],Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
31 1919 - VEI 2.[1]
40 1910 - [1]
53 1897 - VEI 2.[1]
67 1883 - VEI 2.[1]
77 1873 - VEI 4.[1]
83 1867 - VEI 1.[1]
96 1854 - VEI 2.[1]
112 1838 - VEI 2.[1]
134 1816 - VEI 2.[1]
167 1783 - VEI 4.[1] Laki eruption.
176 1774 - VEI 2.[1]
182 1768 - VEI 2.[1]
197 1753 - VEI 2.[1]
220 1730 - VEI 2.[1]
225 1725 - VEI 2.[1]
234 1716 - VEI 2.[1]
244 1706 - VEI 2.[1]
253 1697 - [1]
266 1684 - VEI 2.[1]
269 1681 - [1]
285 1665 7 cm (2.8 in) [1]Approx 280 BP eruption Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
291 1659 - VEI 2.[1]
312 1638 - VEI 2.[1]
318 1632 - [1]
321 1629 - VEI 2.[1]
328 1622 - [1]
331 1619 - VEI 2[1]
340 1610 - [1]
347 1603 2 cm (0.79 in) Approx 345 BP eruption - Oct 1603 Lake Lögurinn core[29]
352 1598 - VEI 3[1]
420±10 1530±10 - [1]
429 1521 - [1]
440 1510 - Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
442 1508 8 cm (3.1 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
450 1500 - Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
450 1500 - [1]
460±10 1490±10 - [1]
479 1471 - [1]
480±10 1470±10 - [1]
481 1469 - [1]
500±10 1450±10 - [1]
520±10 1430±10 - [1]
560±10 1390±10 - [1]
580±10 1370±10 - [1]
581 1369 - [1]
596 1354 - Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29][1]
600 1350 - [1]
609 1341 - VEI 2.[1]
618 1332 - VEI 2.[1]
640±10 1310±10 - [1]
660±10 1290±10 - [1]
680±10 1270±10 - [1]
720±10 1230±10 - [1]
760 1190 - [1]
788 1162 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
860 1090 - [1]
900 1050 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
940 1010 - [1]
973 977 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn core. Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[29]
1065 885 - Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
1092 858 9 cm (3.5 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
1097 853 3 cm (1.2 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
1098 852 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
1100 850 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn core. Has also Kverkfjöll, Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[29]
1162 788 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
1448 502 9 cm (3.5 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
1647 303 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
1670 280 4 cm (1.6 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell, Svartárkort & marine cores.[29]
1734 216 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
1767 183 1 cm (0.39 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
1968±100 18 BCE 3 cm (1.2 in) VEI 2[1]Lake Lögurinn core. Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned [29]
2539 589 BCE 7 cm (2.8 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
2750 800 BCE 4 cm (1.6 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell & marine cores.[29]
2784 834 BCE 9 cm (3.5 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell & marine cores.[29]
3900 1950 BCE - VEI 2.[1]
4356 2406 BCE 4 cm (1.6 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
4651 2701 BCE 1 cm (0.39 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores.[29]
5293 3343 BCE 9 cm (3.5 in) Lake Lögurinn core. Has some Kverkfjöll compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[29]
5557 3607 BCE 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
5661 3711 BCE 4 cm (1.6 in) Lake Lögurinn & Snæfell cores.[29]
5695 3745 BCE 7 cm (2.8 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Snæfell cores. Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned.[29]
6067 4117 BCE 7 cm (2.8 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar, Snæfell & marine cores.[29]
6137 4187 BCE 1 cm (0.39 in) Lake Lögurinn core. Trace possible in a Kárahnjúkar core.[29]
6226 4276 BCE 7 cm (2.8 in) Lake Lögurinn. Possibly in a Kárahnjúkar core.[29]
6283 4333 BCE 7 cm (2.8 in) Lake Lögurinn core. Possibly in a Kárahnjúkar core.[29]
6288 4338 BCE 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn. Trace possible in a Kárahnjúkar core.[29]
6624 4674 BCE - Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
6688 4738 BCE 8 cm (3.1 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
6799 4849 BCE 7 cm (2.8 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
7023 5073 BCE 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn, Kárahnjúkar & Svartárkort cores.[29]
7708 5758 BCE 3 cm (1.2 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
7780 5830 BCE - Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
7839 5889 BCE 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn & Kárahnjúkar cores.[29]
8176 5889 BCE 1 cm (0.39 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
8642 6692 BCE 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
8645 6695 BCE 9 cm (3.5 in) Lake Lögurinn core a possibly in Svartárkort core.[29]
8666 6716 BCE 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
8826 6876 BCE 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9058 7108 BCE 9 cm (3.5 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9086 7136 BCE 8 cm (3.1 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9112 7162 BCE 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9121 7171 BCE 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn & Svartárkort cores.[29]
9130 7180 BCE 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn & Svartárkort cores[29]
9184 7234 BCE 3 cm (1.2 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9268 7318 BCE 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9344 7394 BCE 3 cm (1.2 in) Has some Veidivötn-Bárdarbunga compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned. Lake Lögurinn & Snæfell cores[29]
9433 7483 BCE 8 cm (3.1 in) Lake Lögurinn core. Possibly in Snæfell core[29]
9486 7536 BCE 4 cm (1.6 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9527 7577 BCE 8 cm (3.1 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9535 7585 BCE 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9653 7703 BCE 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
9776 7826 BCE 2 cm (0.79 in) Lake Lögurinn & Svartárkort cores[29]
9849 7899 BCE - Lake Lögurinn & Kirkjugardur cores.[29]
9869 7919 BCE 1 cm (0.39 in) Lake Lögurinn, Svartárkort & Kirkjugardur cores[29]
10003 8053 BCE 6 cm (2.4 in) Lake Lögurinn core.[29]
10019 8069 BCE 5 cm (2.0 in) Lake Lögurinn, Svartárkort & Kirkjugardur cores[29]
10198 8248 BCE - Lake Lögurinn, Kirkjugardur cores.[29]
10200 8250 BCE - VEI 6[1]Also has some Borrobol tephra like compositional characteristics - may be mixed eruption or mis–assigned. Lake Lögurinn, Svartárkort, Litligardur & Reitsvík cores and may be the Fosen tephra identified of same age in Fosen, Norway[29]


Bacteria in the subglacial lakes[edit]

In 2004, a community of bacteria was detected in water of the Grímsvötn lake under the glacier, the first time that bacteria have been found in a subglacial lake. The lakes never freeze because of the volcanic heat. The bacteria can also survive at low concentrations of oxygen. The site is a possible analogue for life on the planet Mars, because there are also traces of volcanism and glaciers on Mars and thus the findings could help identify how to look for life on Mars.[31][32]

Geology[edit]

There is the potential for mechanical interaction such as dyke propagation between Grímsvötn and Thordarhyrna.[33] Interactions can also occur with the nearby Bárðarbunga volcano, which is part of a separate volcanic system.[33] The volcano erupts predominantly tholeiitic basalt, [3] and a close chemical affinity exists with the other lavas of the Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system.[34] Some of the tephra's erupted have transpired to have mixed compositions with nearby volcanic systems and it is not known if this is due to dual eruptions or intusions crossing magma reserviors.[29] It is part of the Eastern volcanic zone of Iceland, and is directly over the Iceland mantle plume.[35] The volcanic system has crater rows extending to the south east; the 25 km (16 mi) long Laki–Grímsvötn fissure system and the 30 km (19 mi) long Rauðhólar-Eldgígur fissure system.[34][3][5]

Future trends[edit]

Studies indicate that volcanic activity in Iceland rises and falls so that the frequency and size of eruptions in and around the Vatnajökull ice cap varies with time. It is believed that the four eruptions between 1996 and 2011 could mark the beginning of an active period, during which an eruption in Grímsvötn in Vatnajökull may be expected every 2–7 years. Parallel volcanic activity in nearby Bárðarbunga is known to be associated with increased activity in Grímsvötn. Seismic activity has been increasing in the area in recent years, indicating the entry of magma.[36]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp "Grímsvötn". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
  2. ^ "How to pronounce /grímsvötn/". youtube.com. Retrieved 23 May 2011.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Guðmundsson, Magnús T.; Larsen, Guðrún (2019). "Grímsvötn Alternative name: Grímsvötn-Laki". Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  4. ^ Jude-Eton, T. C.; Thordarson, T.; Gudmundsson, M. T.; Oddsson, B. (2012-03-08). "Dynamics, stratigraphy and proximal dispersal of supraglacial tephra during the ice-confined 2004 eruption at Grímsvötn Volcano, Iceland". Bulletin of Volcanology. 74 (5): 1057–1082. Bibcode:2012BVol...74.1057J. doi:10.1007/s00445-012-0583-3. ISSN 0258-8900. S2CID 128678427.
  5. ^ a b Guðmundsson, Magnús T.; Larsen, Guðrún (2019). "Þórðarhyrna central volcano (Grímsvötn-Laki volcanic system) e: Thordarhyrna". Retrieved 31 March 2024.
  6. ^ Andrew, R. E. B. (2008). PhD Dissertation: Volcanotectonic Evolution and Characteristic Volcanism of the Neovolcanic Zone of Iceland (PDF) (Thesis). Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen. pp. 1–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-09. Retrieved 2011-05-24. : pages 38,39, Jökulhlaup figure 8.1 
  7. ^ a b c d e "Flood tremor gradually increasing". 12 January 2023. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  8. ^ Russell, Andrew J.; Gregory, Andrew R.; Large, Andrew R. G.; Fleisher, P. Jay; Harris, Timothy D. (2007). "Tunnel channel formation during the November 1996 jökulhlaup, Skeiðarárjökull, Iceland". Annals of Glaciology. 45 (1): 95–103. Bibcode:2007AnGla..45...95R. doi:10.3189/172756407782282552.
  9. ^ See eg.: Elín Margrét Magnúsdóttir: Gjóska úr Grímsvötnum 2011 og Bárðarbungu 2014-2015 : Ásýndar- ogkornastærðargreining. BS ritgerð. Jarðvísindadeild Háskóli Íslands (2017) (in Icelandic, abstract also in English) Retrieved 24 August 2020.
  10. ^ See also: Anne Schöpa: Subglacial volcanism with examples from Iceland. TU Freiberg. (2008)
  11. ^ "Possible Harmonic tremor pulse at Grímsfjall volcano | Iceland Volcano and Earthquake blog". Jonfr.com. 2010-10-02. Archived from the original on 2010-10-10. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  12. ^ Eldgos í Grímsvötnum Archived 2011-08-03 at the National and University Library of Iceland, 24 May 2011 (in Icelandic)
  13. ^ Njörður Helgason (14 April 2011). "Vegurinn um Skeiðarársand lokaður". mbl.is. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  14. ^ "Iceland's most active volcano erupts – Europe". Al Jazeera English. 21 May 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  15. ^ "Iceland volcanic eruption 'not linked to the end of the world' | IceNews – Daily News". Icenews.is. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  16. ^ "Largest Volcanic Eruption in Grímsvötn in 100 Years". Daily News. Iceland Review Online. 22 May 2011. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 22 May 2011.
  17. ^ a b Eurocontrol news
  18. ^ Scottish flights grounded by Iceland volcanic ash cloud, BBC, 23 May 2011
  19. ^ Iceland eruption hits Norwegian flights, The Foreigner, 23 May 2011
  20. ^ David Learmount (26 May 2011). "European proceedures (sic) cope with new ash cloud". Flightglobal. Archived from the original on July 3, 2015. Retrieved September 28, 2015.
  21. ^ "Volcanic Ash Advisory at 1241 on 25 May 2011". Met Office UK. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
  22. ^ "Iceland volcano ash: German air traffic resuming". BBC News. 25 May 2011. Retrieved 25 May 2011.
  23. ^ "Update on volcanic activity in Grímsvötn". Iceland Met Office. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
  24. ^ "Evidences that Grímsvötn volcano is getting ready for the next eruption | News". Icelandic Meteorological office. Retrieved 2020-08-05.
  25. ^ "Grimsvötn volcano (Iceland): subglacial meltwater flood in progress". Volcano Discovery. 3 September 2021. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
  26. ^ "IWO:Flood in Grímsvötn". 8 December 2021. Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  27. ^ "UGS:M 4.5 - 109 km W of Höfn, Iceland". Retrieved 13 January 2023.
  28. ^ Óladóttir, B.A.; Larsen, G.; Sigmarsson, O. (2011). "Holocene volcanic activity at Grímsvötn, Bárdarbunga and Kverkfjöll subglacial centres beneath Vatnajökull, Iceland". Bulletin of Volcanology. 73: 1187–1208. Bibcode:2011BVol...73.1187O. doi:10.1007/s00445-011-0461-4.: 1187 
  29. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br Gudmundsdóttir, E.R.; Larsen, G.; Björck, S.; Ingólfsson, Ó; Striberger, J. (2016). "A new high-resolution Holocene tephra stratigraphy in eastern Iceland: Improving the Icelandic and North Atlantic tephrochronology". Quaternary Science Reviews. 150: 234–249. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.08.011.: Table 4 
  30. ^ a b Bindeman, I.; Gurenko, A.; Sigmarsson, O.; Chaussidon, M. (2008). "Oxygen isotope heterogeneity and disequilibria of olivine crystals in large volume Holocene basalts from Iceland: evidence for magmatic digestion and erosion of Pleistocene hyaloclastites". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 72 (17): 4397–4420. Bibcode:2008GeCoA..72.4397B. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2008.06.010.
  31. ^ Gaidos, E; Lanoil, B; Thorsteinsson, T; Graham, A; Skidmore, M; Han, SK; Rust, T; Popp, B (2004). "A viable microbial community in a subglacial volcanic crater lake, Iceland". Astrobiology. 4 (3): 327–44. doi:10.1089/1531107041939529. PMID 15383238.
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